Artículos Científicos

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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12748/588

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Variabilidad espacio-temporal del carbono negro en alta montaña: un enfoque observacional y modelado en la cordillera Huaytapallana
(Instituto Geofísico del Perú, 2026-01) Miranda Corzo, Andrea; Villalobos Puma, Elver; Zubieta Barragán, Ricardo; Silva Vidal, Yamina
Los glaciares actúan como receptores de contaminantes atmosféricos que alteran sus propiedades ópticas y pueden afectar su derretimiento. Entre estos contaminantes, el carbono negro (BC) oscurece la superficie de nieve y hielo, reduciendo su albedo y acelerando su fusión. Además, el BC impacta en la calidad del aire y en la salud de las personas. Sin embargo, actualmente existe un conocimiento limitado sobre las fuentes, el transporte y la variabilidad temporal del BC en los entornos de valle y montaña del Perú. Para abordar este problema, este estudio combinó observaciones de BC recopiladas entre 2022 y 2023 con simulaciones del modelo WRF-Chem, y retrotrayectorias de HYSPLIT para analizar su transporte e identificar zonas de mayor influencia de fuentes emisoras de BC. Los resultados muestran que altas concentraciones de BC están asociadas a la estacionalidad, al sistema de vientos valle-montaña presente en ambos flancos de la Cordillera Huaytapallana y a las circulaciones de escala sinóptica. Asimismo, se observa que las quebradas de transición Andes-Amazonía, que conectan con los valles interandinos, funcionan como corredores de transporte de BC. Durante los meses secos y de transición, la quebrada del norte constituye la principal vía, aportando aproximadamente el 80 % del BC que llega al Huaytapallana. Los flujos turbulentos de calor y humedad en la superficie terrestre son fundamentales en el intercambio de energía y masa entre la superficie, la atmósfera y la biosfera. Estos procesos regulan la termodinámica de la capa límite atmosférica e influyen directamente en la temperatura, la humedad y la convección. En regiones montañosas como los Andes, donde la topografía interactúa con procesos sinópticos y de mesoescala, los flujos de energía superficial parecen desempeñar un papel decisivo en la formación de eventos convectivos intensos (Flores-Rojas et al., 2019, Callañaupa et al., 2021).
Surface energy exchanges and stability conditions associated with convective intense rainfall events on the central Andes of Peru
(Elsevier BV, 2025-06) José Luis Flores-Rojas; David A. Guizado-Vidal; Jairo Valdivia-Prado; Yamina Silva; Elver Villalobos-Puma; Luis Suárez-Salas; Zenón Mata-Adauto; Hugo Abi Karam
This study presents an in-depth analysis of precipitation patterns, surface energy balance (SEB) components, and atmospheric vertical gradients (AVG) in the Huancayo Geophysical Observatory (HYGO) situated in an agricultural region inside the Mantaro valley within the central Andes of Peru, utilizing data from January 2018 to April 2022 and climatic-scale data from 1965 to 2018. Our findings reveal distinct daily and seasonal precipitation patterns, with peak occurrences in the late afternoon and early evening hours, and a pronounced seasonal variation aligning with dry and rainy periods. Analysis of 21 intense precipitation events linked to convective activity offers crucial insights for weather forecasting and disaster preparedness. These events were identified using in situ gauge pluviometers, the MIRA-35c vertical profiler radar and GPM-IMERG rainfall products. The turbulent energy fluxes: sensible (Q ) and latent (Q ) were estimated using the aerodynamic flux-gradient method and the ground heat flux to the surface was estimated with the scheme of Foken and Napo. Moreover, the study evaluates the efficacy of the Advanced Regional Prediction System (ARPS) model in analyzing turbulent energy fluxes during these events. A comparison with the bulk aerodynamic method indicated underestimations and overestimations by the ARPS model in predicting Q and Q , respectively, necessitating focused calibration and updates in satellite-derived data. Key observations include significant increases in Q and horizontal momentum flux ( ) before convective precipitation events, marking them as potential precursor variables. Additionally, notable decreases in water vapor mixing ratio vertical gradient (WMVG) and Richardson number (RIN), along with increases in horizontal wind gradient (HWVG), suggest changes in surface moisture fluxes and boundary layer dynamics, crucial for convective rainfall initiation. This comprehensive analysis underscores the importance of understanding atmospheric dynamics for improved prediction and preparedness strategies in the face of climatic variability.
Dynamic atmospheric mechanisms associated with the diurnal cycle of hydrometeors and precipitation in the Andes–Amazon transition zone of central Peru during the summer season
(Springer Science and Business Media LLC, 2024-04-04) Elver Villalobos-Puma; Annareli Morales; Daniel Martinez-Castro; Jairo Valdivia; Rodolfo Cardenas-Vigo; Waldo Lavado-Casimiro; Alexzander Santiago
The diurnal cycle of total hydrometeor availability and its associated patterns of atmospheric circulation is studied over a connected Andes–Amazon (A–A) system in the central region of Peru during the summer season. Surface precipitation depends on the amount of hydrometeors that occur in the atmosphere and its atmospheric dynamics. Hydrometeors and the precipitation efficiency index were estimated using radar of the core satellite of the GPM system (N-GPM) for the period 2014–2022. The atmospheric dynamics were analyzed using the regional Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. According to the results, the Andes mountain range produces precipitation at a surface level more efficiently during the afternoon and early evening hours (12–19 LT) due to the convergence of the thermal mesoscale circulations transporting moisture fluxes from the east and west. Both generate convective multicells along the Andes mountain range. The circulation from the west intensifies during the day, causing the displacement of the chain of convective multicells towards the east and producing hydrometeors and intense precipitations in the inter-Andean valleys. The A–A transition zone is more efficient in producing precipitation during the early hours of the day (00–07 LT) due to an increase in the northern circulation associated with the low-level jets and a change in the magnitude of the horizontal winds. Northerly winds enter the A–A transition zone with increased intensity and leave with reduced intensity. This mechanism is driven by the effect of the topographical barrier and the masses of cold air located in high areas on the eastern flank of the Andes. These factors generate significant updrafts and, therefore, the formation of storm clouds with high concentrations of hydrometeors and precipitation on the surface.
“Declining glacier cover drives changes in aquatic macroinvertebrate biodiversity in the Cordillera Blanca, Perú”
(Wiley, 2024-07-31) Edson Palacios Robles; Katy Medina; Edwin Loarte; Alberto Castañeda Barreto; Miriam Gamboa Mendoza; Rosario Polo Salazar; Pedro Tapia; Francesca Pellicciotti; Lee E. Brown
Ongoing climate change threatens the biodiversity of glacier-fed river ecosystems worldwide through shifts in water availability and timing, temperature, chemistry, and channel stability. However, tropical glacier-fed rivers have received little attention compared to those in temperate and Arctic biomes, despite their unique biodiversity potentially responding differently due to additional stress from higher altitude locations thus lower oxygen availability, diurnal freeze–thaw cycles, and annual monsoon rainfall disturbances. This study quantified aquatic biodiversity responses to decreasing glacier cover in the Cordillera Blanca range of the Peruvian Andes. Ten rivers were studied along a gradient of decreasing glacier cover in the Parón, Huaytapallana, and Llanganuco basins, with a specific focus on macroinvertebrates and physicochemical parameters in both the dry and wet seasons. We found higher temperatures, more stable and lower turbidity rivers as glacier cover decreased, which were related significantly to higher local diversity and lower β-diversity. Analysis of similarity revealed significant differences in the macroinvertebrate community among rivers with high, medium, or low glacier cover, illustrating turnover from specialists to generalists as glacial influence decreased. Redundancy analysis demonstrated that there were more species found to prefer stable beds and water temperatures in medium and low glacier cover in a catchment rivers. However, certain taxa in groups such as Paraheptagyia, Orthocladiinae, Anomalocosmoecus, and Limonia may be adapted to high glacial influence habitats and at risk of glacier retreat. Although species composition was different to other biomes, the Cordillera Blanca rivers showed similar benthic macroinvertebrate biodiversity responses to glacier retreat, supporting the hypothesis that climate change will have predictable effects on aquatic biodiversity in mountain ranges worldwide.
Hailstorm events in the Central Andes of Peru: insights from historical data and radar microphysics
(Copernicus GmbH, 2024-04-18) Jairo M. Valdivia; José Luis Flores-Rojas; Josep J. Prado; David Guizado; Elver Villalobos-Puma; Stephany Callañaupa; Yamina Silva-Vidal
Hailstorms, while fascinating from a meteorological perspective, pose significant risks to communities, agriculture, and infrastructure. In regions such as the Central Andes of Peru, the characteristics and frequency of these extreme weather events remain largely uncharted. This study fills this gap by investigating the historical frequency and vertical structure of hailstorms in this region. We analyzed historical hailstorm records dating back to 1958 alongside 4 years of observations (2017–2021) from the Parsivel2 disdrometer and a cloud-profiling radar MIRA35c. Our findings indicate a trend of decreasing hail frequency (−0.5 events per decade). However, the p value of 0.07 suggests the need for further investigation, particularly in relation to environmental changes and reporting methods. The results show that hailstorms predominantly occur during the austral summer months, with peak frequency in December, and are most common during the afternoon and early evening hours. The analysis of radar variables such as reflectivity, radial velocity, spectral width, and linear depolarization ratio (LDR) reveals distinct vertical profiles for hail events. Two case studies highlight the diversity in the radar measurements of hailstorms, underscoring the complexity of accurate hail detection. This study suggests the need for refining the Parsivel2 algorithm and further understanding its classification of hydrometeors. Additionally, the limitations of conventional radar variables for hail detection are discussed, recommending the use of LDR and Doppler spectrum analysis for future research. Our findings lay the groundwork for the development of more efficient hail detection algorithms and improved understanding of hailstorms in the Central Andes of Peru.
Glacier influence on the composition and diversity of the marine phytoplankton community in Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica
(Ciencias Marinas, 2024) Katy Medina Marcos; Edwin Loarte; Sofia Rodriguez-Venturo; Maribel Baylón Coritoma; Pedro M Tapia
Climate change has contributed to rapid glacier retreat in the West Antarctic Peninsula, with potential implications for marine ecosystems, particularly phytoplankton communities. In this study, we examined the influence of glacier proximity on phytoplankton composition in Admiralty Bay, Antarctica, during the austral summer of 2020. In total, 12 sampling stations were established at various distances from the glacier front to collect water samples at 3 depths to quantitatively analyze phytoplankton. The community in all stations was found to be dominated by nanoflagellates (<20 µm) (95.5%), followed by diatoms (4.02%), and finally, dinoflagellates (0.47%). The diversity index (H') ranged from 0.07 to 1.04 bits·cell–1, with the highest indices observed at stations closer to the glacier fronts and the one closest to the coast (<3 km). Based on phytoplankton community composition, 3 clusters were identified: (1) the station closest to the coast, (2) stations located between 0.66 and 1.12 km from the glacier front, and (3) stations between 2.61 and 11.10 km from the glacier front. Overall, diversity exhibited a fourth-degree polynomial relationship (R2 = 0.35) with glacier distance. Therefore, it can be concluded that the composition of marine phytoplankton varies based on its proximity to glaciers in Admiralty Bay.
Summertime precipitation extremes and the influence of atmospheric flows on the western slopes of the southern Andes of Perú
(Wiley, 2022-09-29) Elver Villalobos‐Puma; Jose Luis Flores‐Rojas; Daniel Martinez‐Castro; Annareli Morales; Waldo Lavado‐Casimiro; Kobi Mosquera‐Vásquez; Yamina Silva
Although climatologically dry, the western slopes of the southern Andes of Peru (WSA) can experience precipitation extremes (PEs) during the summer (December–February) resulting in great economic and human losses. Generally, WSA has a positive upslope gradient in precipitation, meaning more rain falls at higher elevations, but observations have shown this gradient can become negative with higher rainfall near the coastal cities. In this study we analyse 2000–2019 regional atmospheric patterns associated with different upslope precipitation gradients and PEs in WSA using principal component analysis methods and surface station observations. Results show important changes in the atmospheric circulation patterns during the occurrence of PE events. A prevailing pattern of negative southerly wind anomalies and regional warming of the southeastern Pacific Ocean leads to significant increases in moisture along the coast of WSA. Eastern moisture flows associated with the presence of the Bolivian High are observed at upper levels of the atmosphere and transport water vapour from the Amazon to the western side of the Andes. Additionally, there is a blocking effect aloft in response to an intense gradient of geopotential height that attenuates the easterly circulations. These large‐scale mechanisms act to concentrate high precipitable water amounts and high levels of convective available potential energy in the troposphere which favours the vertical velocities essential to trigger PEs. These results increase our knowledge of the large‐scale characteristics of PEs to help with forecasting these impactful events and protecting the more than 1.8 million people living in WSA.
Compiling an Inventory of Glacier-Bed Overdeepenings and Potential New Lakes in De-Glaciating Areas of the Peruvian Andes: Approach, First Results, and Perspectives for Adaptation to Climate Change
(MDPI AG, 2017-05-09) Daniel Colonia; Judith Torres; Wilfried Haeberli; Simone Schauwecker; Eliane Braendle; Claudia Giraldez; Alejo Cochachin
Global warming causes rapid shrinking of mountain glaciers. New lakes can, thus, form in the future where overdeepenings in the beds of still-existing glaciers are becoming exposed. Such new lakes can be amplifiers of natural hazards to downstream populations, but also constitute tourist attractions, offer new potential for hydropower, and may be of interest for water management. Identification of sites where future lakes will possibly form is, therefore, an essential step to initiate early planning of measures for risk reduction and sustainable use as part of adaptation strategies with respect to impacts from climate change. In order to establish a corresponding knowledge base, a systematic inventory of glacier-bed overdeepenings and possible future lakes was compiled for the still glacierized parts of the Peruvian Andes using the 2003–2010 glacier outlines from the national glacier inventory and the SRTM DEM from the year 2000. The resulting inventory contains 201 sites with overdeepened glacier beds >1 ha (104 m2) where notable future lakes could form, representing a total volume of about 260 million m3. A rough classification was assigned for the most likely formation time of the possible new lakes. Such inventory information sets the stage for analyzing sustainable use and hazard/risk for specific basins or regions.
Atmospheric black carbon observations and its valley-mountain dynamics: Eastern cordillera of the central Andes of Peru
(Elsevier BV, 2024-08) Elver Villalobos-Puma; Luis Suarez; Stefania Gillardoni; Ricardo Zubieta; Daniel Martinez-Castro; Andrea Miranda-Corzo; Paolo Bonasoni; Yamina Silva
Glacial bodies in the Peruvian Andes Mountains store and supply freshwater to hundreds of thousands of people in central Peru. Atmospheric black carbon (BC) is known to accelerate melting of snow and ice, in addition to contributing to air pollution and the health of people. Currently there is limited understanding on the sources and temporal variability of BC in valley and mountain environments in Peru. To address this problem, this study combined surface observations of BC collected during 2022–2023 with WRF model simulations and HYSPLIT trajectories to analyze the dispersion and sources of BC in valley and high elevation environments and the associated local atmospheric circulations. Results show high BC concentrations are associated with the valley-mountain wind system that occurs on both sides of the Huaytapallana mountain range. A pronounced circulation occurs on the western slopes of Huaytapallana when concentrations of BC increase during daylight hours, which transports atmospheric pollutants from cities in the Mantaro River Valley to the Huaytapallana mountain range. Low concentrations of BC are associated with circulations from the east that are channeled by the pronounced ravines of the Andes-Amazon transition. On average, during the season of highest BC concentrations (July–November), the relative contributions of fossil fuels are dominant to biomass burning at the valley observatory and are slightly lower at the Huaytapallana observatory. These results demonstrate the need to promote mitigation actions to reduce emissions of BC and air pollution associated with forest fires and local anthropogenic activity.
Landsystem analysis of a tropical moraine‐dammed supraglacial lake, Llaca Lake, Cordillera Blanca, Perú
(Wiley, 2023-02-02) Rodrigo Alberto Narro Pérez; Carolyn H. Eyles; Rebecca E. Lee; Luzmila Dàvila Röller; John C. Maclachlan
Tropical glaciers of the Cordillera Blanca, Perú are rapidly thinning and retreating as a result of climate warming. The retreat of these glaciers along narrow linear bedrock valleys has increased the number and size of moraine‐dammed glacial lakes formed in the valleys. This study aims to identify the geomorphological and sedimentological characteristics of an enlarging moraine‐dammed supraglacial lake (Llaca Lake) in the Cordillera Blanca. Field‐based sedimentological observations and geomorphological mapping were combined with remotely sensed data and a photogrammetric model derived from aerial surveys by an uncrewed aerial vehicle to identify landform‐sediment assemblages. The geomorphological and sedimentological characteristics of Llaca Lake are synthesized into three landsystem zones: Zone 1: distal portions of Llaca Lake and the latero‐frontal moraine; Zone 2: the central zone of ice‐cored hummocks; and Zone 3: the active glacier margin. These zones are differentiated based on the spatial distribution of landforms, sediments, and active geomorphological processes. This is the first study to describe the landform‐sediment assemblages in a tropical moraine‐dammed supraglacial lake system and provides a framework for further landsystem element analysis of these growing supraglacial lakes in rapidly deglaciating high‐altitude environments.
Characteristics of cloud properties over South America and over Andes observed using CloudSat and reanalysis data
(International Journal of Remote Sensing, 2023-04-11) Shailendra Kumar; Jose Luis Flores; Aldo S. Moya-Álvarez; Daniel Martinez-Castro; Yamina Silva
CloudSat profile of attenuated corrected radar reflectivity (Ze) and cloud mask data are used to investigate the cloud properties over South America (SA) during Austral Summer monsoon seasons. Deep convective core (DCC), deep & intense convective systems (DCSs & ICSs), and cloud clusters (CCs) are defined based on the Ze and cloud mask values. The spatial distributions of DCCs show that land-dominated areas have higher frequency of DCCs and Atlantic Ocean has less DCCs. The Pacific Ocean does not consist of DCCs, whereas eastern flank of Andes has higher frequency of DCCs compared to western flank of the Andes. North La Plata basin (Sierra de Cordoba) has a higher fraction of deeper (shallower) DCCs. Deep convection over the Sierra de Cordoba and South La Plata Basin is characterized by precipitation-size particles compared to cloud-size particles, whereas deep convection over north La Plata Basin is dominated by mostly cloud-size particles. The horizontal span of DCSs and ICSs is higher over south La Plata Basin and Atlantic Oceans compared to other SA areas. Sierra de Cordoba (Atlantic Ocean) has the highest (lowest) frequency of small DCSs and vice versa. DCSs and ICSs show the opposite characteristic, as all the selected areas consist of a higher fraction of large (small) sized DCSs (ICSs). CCs develop more in horizontal than in vertical direction over the high latitude and vice versa over lower latitude. The CCs distribution reflects the orography and moisture flow pattern at the east and west side of Andes. The higher Ze, which is the proxy for rainfall, occurs at the eastern flank/slope of the Andes, and related to easterly moisture loaded synoptic flow, transported from Amazon and upslope flow along the slope.
Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Black Carbon in Peru from the Analysis of Biomass Burning Sources and the Use of Numerical Models
(2023-04-08) Moya-Álvarez, Aldo S.; Estevan, René; Martínez-Castro, Daniel; Silva, Yamina
Este estudio evalúa la distribución espacial y temporal del carbono negro (Black Carbon, BC) proveniente de la quema de biomasa en el Perú y países vecinos durante el periodo 2018–2020, con especial énfasis en el año 2019. Mediante simulaciones del modelo WRF-CHEM y análisis de trayectorias con el modelo HYSPLIT, se identificaron los glaciares más afectados por la deposición de BC, especialmente el glaciar Huaytapallana. Los resultados muestran un aumento significativo de incendios en el Perú a partir de julio, con picos entre agosto y septiembre, coincidiendo con mayores concentraciones de BC en la atmósfera. Se observó una fuerte correlación entre el número de focos de quema y la Profundidad Óptica de Aerosoles (AOD) registrada en el observatorio de Huancayo. Ucayali fue la región con mayor número de focos, mientras que las mayores emisiones se originaron en el sur de Loreto. El modelo mostró que el transporte de BC se produce predominantemente de norte a sur, afectando principalmente a las cordilleras de Huaytapallana, Huagoruncho y Vilcabamba, mientras que la Cordillera Blanca presentó concentraciones menores. Este análisis permite comprender mejor el impacto de las emisiones de BC en los ecosistemas glaciares del país.
700,000 years of tropical Andean glaciation
(Nature, 2022-07-13) Rodbell, D. T.; Hatfield, R. G.; Abbott, M. B.; Tapia, P. M.
Este estudio proporciona un registro continuo e independiente de glaciaciones tropicales en los Andes, basado en un núcleo de pistón extraído del lago Junín, ubicado en la cuenca superior del Amazonas. El núcleo abarca un periodo de 700,000 años y ofrece una visión única de los ciclos glaciales e interglaciales tropicales. Los hallazgos revelan que los glaciares tropicales en los Andes respondieron de manera sincronizada a los cambios en el volumen de hielo global, siguiendo una periodicidad de aproximadamente 100,000 años, similar a la observada en otras regiones del planeta. Este registro continuo ofrece nuevos insights sobre las teleconexiones climáticas que han impulsado los ciclos de glaciación en los trópicos, proporcionando una base valiosa para comparaciones interhemisféricas más detalladas y para la comprensión de los patrones climáticos a largo plazo en la región andina.
Contemporary glacial lakes in the Peruvian Andes
(World Wide, 2021-07) J.L.Wood; S. Harrison; A.Emmer; C.Yarleque; F.Glassere; J.C.Torres; A.Caballero; J.Araujo; G.L.Bennetta; A.Diaz-Moreno; D.Garay; H.Jara; C.Pomag; J.M.Reynolds; C.A.Riveros; E.Romerod; S.Shannoni; T.Tinoco; E.Turpo; H.Villafane
Glacier recession in response to climate warming has resulted in an increase in the size and number of glacial lakes. Glacial lakes are an important focus for research as they impact water resources, glacier mass balance, and some produce catastrophic glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). Glaciers in Peru have retreated and thinned in recent decades, prompting the need for monitoring of ice- and water-bodies across the cordilleras. These monitoring efforts have been greatly facilitated by the availability of satellite imagery. However, knowledge gaps remain, particularly in relation to the formation, temporal evolution, and catastrophic drainage of glacial lakes. In this paper we address this gap by producing the most current and detailed glacial lake inventory in Peru and provide a set of reproducible methods that can be applied consistently for different time periods, and for other mountainous regions. The new lake inventory presented includes a total of 4557 glacial lakes covering a total area of 328.85 km2. In addition to detailing lake distribution and extent, the inventory includes other metrics, such as dam type and volume, which are important for GLOF hazard assessments. Analysis of these metrics showed that the majority of glacial lakes are detached from current glaciers (97%) and are classified as either embedded (i.e. bedrock dammed; ~64% of all lakes) or (moraine) dammed (~28% of all lakes) lakes. We also found that lake size varies with dam type; with dammed lakes tending to have larger areas than embedded lakes. The inventory presented provides an unparalleled view of the current state of glacial lakes in Peru and represents an important first step towards (1) improved understanding of glacial lakes and their topographic and morphological characteristics and (2) assessing risk associated with GLOFs. Keywords: Hazard; Glacier; Lake; GLOF; Climate; Method

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